Word-building

             Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. Like any other science of language word-building can be studied either synchronically or diachronically. Synchronically word-building concerns itself for the study of the present-day system of formative types. The diachronic approach to word-building deals with the development of formative types, with their history. Nowadays most linguistic research in word-building is synchronic. But in the field of word-building, we cannot totally get rid of the diachronic approach. Seeing the inevitability of applying diachronic methods along with synchronic ones Hans Marchand, the author of the most extensive research into word-building in English, called his approach “synchronic-diachronic”.

              There are four main ways of word building in Modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of word building: sound interchange, sound imitation, stress interchange, blends, back formation (disaffixation).

 

                                                       Affixation

             Affixation has been one of the most productive ways of word building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation & prefixation.

Suffixation

 

             The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another; the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. (e.g. educate is a verb, educatee (учащийся) is a noun, & music is a noun, musicdom is also a noun).

             There are different classifications of suffixes:

1.   Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here:

a)   noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom (чиновничество)), -ism (ageism, absolutism;

b)  adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able (breathable, absorbable), -less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious);

c)   verb-forming suffixes, such as: -ize (computerize), -ify (micrify), -en (shorten);

d)  adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward), -wise (jetwise);

e)   numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -fold (twofold).

2.   Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:

a) the agent of the action, e.g. –er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student);

b) nationality, e.g. –ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English);

c) collectivity, e.g. –dom (moviedom), -ry (pleasantry (readership (круг читателей)), -ati (literati (литераторы, образованные люди));

d) diminutiveness (уменьшительность), e.g. –ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette (кухонька)), -y (hanky (носовой платок)), -ock (hillock);

e) quality, e.g. –ness (copelessness, acquisitiveness), -ity (answerability, acuity);

f)  feminine gender, e.g. –ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -ette (cosmonette);

g) abstract notion, e.g. –hood (childhood), -ness (politeness), -ence/ance (tolerance);

h) derogatory (уничижительный) meaning, e.g. –ard (drunkard), -ster (gangster), -ling (underling (мелкая сошка)).

3.   Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:

a)            suffixed added to noun stems, such as: -er (commuter (пассажир, пользующийся сезонным билетом), -ing (suffering), -able (flyable, conformable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization);

b)           suffixed added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless, aidless), -ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism, alarmism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish);

c)            suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness, aimlessness).

4.   Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:

a)  native (Germanic), such as –er (teacher), -ful (careful), -less (painless), -ly (swiftly), -dom (kingdom), -ed (talented), -en (soften), -hood (childhood), -ness (kindness), -ship (friendship), -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -ward (homeward);

b) Roman, such as: -tion (attention), -ment (development), -able/ible (terrible, moveable), -eer (mountaineer), -ant/ent (student, pleasant), -age (carriage), -ard (drunkard), -ance/ence (attendance, absence), -ate (dictate), -sy (flimsy);

c)  Greek, such as: -ist (taxist), -ism (capitalism), -ize (organize);

d) Russian, such as –nik (filmnik).

             The term borrowed affixes is not very exact, as affixes are never borrowed as such, but only as parts of borrowed words. To enter the morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix has to satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of an affix is possible only if the number of words containing this affix is considerable, if its meaning & function are definite & clear enough, & also if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already existing in the language.

5.   Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:

a) productive, such as: -er (dancer), -ize (specialize), -ly (wetly), -ness (closeness);

b) semi-productive, such as: -eer (profiteer), -ette (kitchenette), -ward (skyward);

c) non-productive, such as: -ard (drunkard), -th (length).

6.   Structure. Here we can point out:

a) simple, such as –er (speaker), -ist (taxist);

b) compound, such as: -ical (ironical), -ation (formation), -manship (sportsmanship), -ably/-ibly (terribly, reasonably).

             Suffixes can be polysemantic, e.g. –er can form nouns with the following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter).

             There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme in the structure of a word. In such cases we call such morphemes semi-suffixes, & words with such suffixes can be classified either as affixed words or as compound words, e.g –gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic), -man (postman) etc.

 

                                                      Prefixation

 

             Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words & prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes, which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead (наверху, над головой)); c.f. over the table.

             The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English from one part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc.). The prefix be- forms transitive verbs with adjective, verb & noun stems, e.g. belittle – to make little, benumb – to make numb (приводить в оцепенение), to befriend – to treat like a friend, to becloud – to cover with clouds, to bemadam – to call madam, to bejewel (украшать драгоценными камнями) – to deck with jewels. Sometimes the meaning is quite different, as in such a case to behead which means to cut off the head.

              The prefix en-/em- is now used to form verbs from noun stems with the meaning to put an object into or on something, e.g. to engulf, to embed. It can also form verbs with adjective & noun stems with the meaning to bring into some condition or state, e.g. to encase, to enable, to enslave.

              The prefix a- is the characteristic feature of words belonging to statives: asleep, awake, anew (снова, еще раз) etc.

              The prefixes pre-, post-, non-, anti- & some other very productive modern prefixes of Romanic & Greek origin are used to form adjectives with a very clear-cut lexical meaning of their own, e.g. pre-war, post-war, anti-war, non-party, pro-life etc.

                Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:

1.   Semantic classification:

a)                      prefixes of negative meaning, such as in- (invaluable неоценимый)), non- (nonformals, nonfictional), un- (unfree) etc. Non- used to be restricted to simple unemphatic negation. Beginning with the 1950s non- indicates not so much the opposite of something but rather that something is not real or worthy of the name, e.g. non-book is a book published to be bought rather than to be read; non-thing - smth. insignification & meaningless; non-person - smb. unworthy of attention etc. Un- can denote simple negation, e.g. uneven (неровный), unkind, unhappy, & also reversative action when it shows an action contrary to that of a simple verb, e.g. unpack, unbind;

b)                      prefixes denoting repletion or reversative actions, such as de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation, retrogression), dis- (disconnect), & also un- mentioned above;

c)                      prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), ex- (exstudent), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.

2.   Origin of prefixes:

a) native (Germanic), such as un- (unhappy), over- (overfeed), under- (undernourish) etc;

b) Romanic, such as in- (inactive (бездеятельный)), de- (demobilize), ex- (ex-student), re- (rewrite) etc;

c) Greek, such as: sym- (sympathy), hyper- (hypertension) etc.

3. Prefixes may also be classified according to the part of speech they form:

a) Verb-forming prefixes: re- (rewrite), be- (behead), dis- (disjoin) and a few more;

b) Noun-forming prefixes: arch- (archbishop), ex- (ex-champion), post (postposition), dis- (disadvantage);

c) Adverb-forming prefixes: a- (afield), over- (overboard).

               When we analyze such as adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes to form new words in English & were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as affixed words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as contain, retain, detain & conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that con- & de- act as prefixes & -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning & are called pseudo-morphemes (ложный). Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as affixed ones.

              There are some prefixes, which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g., after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as affixed ones.